Accessible information, compared to available information, 268n8
Achievement: attributions on, 180–182; in science courses, class structure affecting, 232–234, 283n7
Achievement gap in the sciences, on closing, 232–234, 283n7
Acquired skill, learning as, 2
Agarwal, Pooja, 34
Alzheimer’s disease, 164
Ambiguity, hunger for narrative in, 109–112
Anagram solving: difficulty and working memory in, 91–92, 270n17; distraction of one-sided conversation affecting, 109–110; varied practice in, 52–53, 264–265n6
Analogical transfer, 278n14
Analytical skills: and achievement in science courses, 233; in Bloom’s taxonomy of learning, 228; and intelligence, 148, 150
Andersen Windows and Doors, 247–250
Anxiety in test taking, 91–92
Application of learning, in Bloom’s taxonomy of learning, 228
Apprentice model in training, 127
Aristotle, 28
Artists, learning painting styles of, 53–54, 84, 265n7
Associative learning, 172
Attitude: brain training affecting, 178; growth mindset in, 179–183, 233, 281n16
Attributions of achievement and failure, 180–182
Auditory learning style, 143, 144, 145
Available information, compared to accessible information, 268n8
Axons, 166, 169–170; myelination of, 169, 170–171, 178
Azimuth check, 21, 235–236
Bach-y-Rita, Paul, 168–169
Bacon, Francis, 28, 131, 274n1
Bain, Patrice, 33, 36
Barber, Ken, 246, 247, 284n12
Barnet, Ann, 173
Barnet, Richard, 173
Baseball training, 6–7, 79–81, 85, 86, 206, 268n9
Batting practice, 6–7, 79–81, 85, 86, 206
Beanbag study of motor skills learning, 46, 51, 86, 263n1
Bellerbys College, 193, 211
Bias in hindsight, 115–116, 273n11
Big lie technique, 116
Bird classification, learning of, 54–55, 84–85
Bjork, Elizabeth, 69, 98, 266n12, 266–267n2, 268n10, 270n19
Bjork, Robert, 69, 98, 111, 145, 266n12, 266–267n2, 267n6, 268n10, 270n19
Blindness, sensory retraining in, 168, 169
Blink (Gladwell), 106
Blocked practice, 53, 65, 206, 207
Blodgett, Bonnie, 94–98, 209, 270n18
Bloom, Benjamin, 228
Bloom’s taxonomy of learning, 228–229, 232, 233
Blundetto, Frank, 68
Blundetto, Mia, 67–68, 71–72, 266n1
Braille, 168
Brain: changes in learning, 7, 199, 226; consolidation of memory in, 20, 28, 49, 100, 172; encoding of information in, 72–73, 100, 267n3; frontal lobes of, 170–171; in habit formation, 171–172; in motor learning, 51–52, 264n5; myelination of nerve fibers in, 169, 170–171, 178; neurogenesis in, 172; plasticity of, 66, 142, 164–173, 184, 279n3; remodeling in deliberate practice, 184; training of, 176–179
The Brain That Changes Itself (Doidge), 168
Branson, Richard, 139, 140
Brazilian children with street businesses, mathematical abilities of, 149–150, 276n10
Brooklyn Free School, 123
Brown, Matt, 1–2, 10–12, 19, 20, 197
Business training methods, 50, 240–252
Calibration of judgments of learning, 4–5, 125–130, 210–211; retrieval practice and testing in, 125, 202–203
California Polytechnic State University, baseball training in, 79–81, 86
Carnahan, Mel, 108, 271n3
Carson, Kit, 165, 167, 279n2
Chamberlain, Roger, 33, 36–37, 44–45, 261n9
China Airlines incident, 106–109, 271n3
Chugani, Harry T., 168
Chunking process in habit formation, 171, 198
Classical conditioning, 199
Climb for Memory Foundation, 164
Coaching methods. See Sports training
Cognitive differences in learning: for rule learners and example learners, 155–157, 278–279n15; and structure building, 153–155
Cognitive psychology, 8
Columbia Public School District (Illinois), 238–239; test-enhanced learning in, 20, 33–37, 258n13, 260n8
Columbus State University, 212–213
Common Core State Standards Initiative, 238
Competence, overestimation of, 104–105, 121–123, 124, 273n17
Comprehension: Bloom’s taxonomy of learning on, 228; cues for judgment of, 126
Conceptual knowledge, 55, 84–85, 265n8; compared to factual knowledge, 55
Conditioning, classical, 199
Conformity of memory, social influences on, 117
Connectome, 170
Consolidation of memory, 28, 49, 63, 73–75, 100, 267n4; neurogenesis in, 172; and reconsolidation, 20, 74, 82–83, 101, 268–269n11; in sleep, 63, 73, 267n4
Contagion of memory by social influences, 117, 273n12
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 14
Context of learning, 6; concrete and personal, 11
Control, sense of, in growth mindset, 179–183
Cramming, 3, 31, 44, 48, 63, 203, 226
Creative intelligence, 148, 150
Creativity, 17–18, 30
Crystallized intelligence, 147, 176
Culture of continuous improvement in Andersen Windows and Doors, 247–250
Cumulative learning: fostered by cumulative quizzing, 38–39; 238; in Columbia Public School District, 238–239; as teaching strategy, 227; testing on, 238
Curse of knowledge, 115–116, 119, 273n11, 273n16
Dartmouth College, 12, 257n5
Darwin Awards, 104
Delay of gratification, 162–163, 279n1
Deliberate practice, 183–185, 281n20
Dellis, Nelson, 164, 166
Dendrites, 166, 169–170
Desirable difficulties in learning, 68–69, 98, 160, 226–228, 229, 266–267n2
Developmental psychology, 8
Difficulty of learning, 7, 67–101; as desirable, 68–69, 98, 160, 226–228, 229, 266–267n2; in jump school training, 68–78; in spaced practice, 4, 47, 49, 81, 82, 205; and strength and duration of memory, 9; for students, 201; as teaching strategy, 225–228, 229; as undesirable, 92, 98–99
Discrimination skills, 65, 101; in identification of artists’ painting styles, 53–54, 84, 265n7; in identification of birds, 54–55, 84–85; fostered by interleaved and varied practice , 53–55, 65, 84–85, 101
Disraeli, Benjamin, 109
Distortions of memory, 109–118; in false consensus effect, 117, 273n13; in familiarity, 116; in flashbulb memories, 117–118, 273n14; in hindsight bias, 115–116, 273n11; in hunger for narratives, 109–112; in hypnosis, 114, 272n9; in imagination inflation, 113, 272n7; in interference, 114–115; in social influences, 116–117; in suggestion, 113–114
Doidge, Norman, 168
Donahue, Barney, 136–137
Dooley, Vince, 60–62, 120, 198, 222, 266n11
Dowling, Joe, 217
Dreaming, consolidation of memory in, 267n4
Dunn, Kenneth, 144
Dunn, Rita, 144
Dunning, David, 109, 121, 122, 126, 273n17
Dunning-Kruger effect, 121, 273n17
Dweck, Carol, 92, 139, 179–183, 233, 281n16
Dynamic testing, 151–152, 159, 277n12; steps in, 152
Dyslexia, 139–140, 141–143, 159, 275nn3–4
Early education programs, intelligence quotient changes in, 175–176
Ebersold, Mike, 23–27, 29, 59, 120, 127, 155, 198, 222, 259n1
Edison, Thomas, 93
Effort: advanced learning in, 7; brain changes in, 199, 226; conceptual learning in, 84–85; and desirable difficulties in learning, 68–69, 98, 160, 226–228, 229, 266–267n2; failure attributions affecting, 180–182; and generation effect, 32; in growth mindset, 179, 180–181; in interleaved practice, 47, 50, 81, 207; mastery in, 83–84; mental models in, 83, 101; in performance goals and learning goals, 180–181; praise affecting, 181–182; reconsolidation of memory in, 82–83; in retrieval practice, 41, 43, 79, 203, 262n14; in spaced practice, 4, 47, 49, 81, 82, 205; and strength and duration of memory, 9, 49; in student learning, 201; teacher explanations of, 225–226; in varied practice, 47, 81
Einstein, Albert, 17
Elaboration process, 5–6, 36, 207–208; in Andersen Windows and Doors, 250; in football training, 62; of lifelong learners, 219, 223–225; of medical student, 214, 215; in reflection, 209–210; with summary sheets, 208, 231; as teaching strategy, 208, 227, 231
Embedded questions, benefits of to low structure-builders, 155, 277n13
Empirical research on learning, 9
Encoding process, 72–73, 100, 267n3
Environmental influences on intelligence quotient, 173–176
Ericsson, Anders, 92–93, 183, 184–185, 195, 224, 281n20
Erie Lackawanna railroad, 137–138
Errorless learning, 90, 270n16; myth of, 90–94
Errors, 90–94; of blundering gardener, 94–98; feedback on, 39–40, 44, 90, 101; and Festival of Errors, 93; generative learning in, 94–98; in illusion of knowing, 102–130; and intellectual abilities, 7, 92; in retrieval practice, 202; in social contagion of memory, 117
Evaluation skills, in Bloom’s taxonomy of learning, 229
Example learning, 160; compared to rule learning, 155–157, 278–279n15
Experience, learning from, 66, 133; generation effect in, 208–209; on investment strategies, 132–139, 152; in medical education, 58–59
Expert performance, 92–93; deliberate practice for, 183–185; mental models in, 83; self-discipline, grit, and persistence required for, 182, 183, 199
Explicit memory, 56
Failure: attributions of, 180–182; and errorless learning, 90–94; fear of, 91–92; as source of inspiration, 93
False consensus effect, 117, 273n13
False memories, 267n3
Familiarity: continuing practice in, 64; feeling of knowing in, 116; judgment of learning in, 126
Farmers Insurance training program, 50, 241–244
Far Side cartoons, 5
Feedback, 261n12; in Andersen Windows and Doors training, 248; delayed and immediate, comparison of, 39–40; on errors, 39–40, 44, 90, 101; in Jiffy Lube University, 245, 246; judgment of learning based on, 122, 126–127; lack of, overestimation of competence in, 122; in motor learning, 40, 261n12
Fellows, Timothy, 216–217
Festival of Errors, 93
Firearms training, simulations in, 128–130
Fire extinguisher location test, 13, 258n7
Fire hose method of instruction, 10, 12
First RepublicBank of Texas, 138
Flashbulb memories, 117–118, 273n14
Flashcards: in retrieval practice, 3, 204; in spaced practice, 64, 204; in student-directed learning, 44, 124, 274n19; in varied practice, 65–66
Fleming, Neil, 144
Flight simulator training, 11–12
Fluency: illusion of mastery in, 17, 82, 116, 202, 210; judgment of learning in, 126; in language, 141
Fluid intelligence, 146–147, 176–178
Flynn, James, 280n11
Flynn effect, 173, 280n11
Foer, Joshua, 194–195
Football coaching and training, 60–62, 120, 124, 198; reflection in, 62, 222
Forgetting, 267n3; as aid in new learning, 77–78, 267–268nn6–7; curve of, 28, 259n2; in massed practice, 47, 48; in medical education, 59–60; in reassignment or disuse of retrieval cues, 77–79; of short-term memory, 72–73, 100; in spaced practice, 63, 82; testing affecting, 30–32, 39, 259–260n6
Fortune magazine, 139, 142
Fremont, John, 165, 167
Frontal lobes, 170–171
Fuller, Nathaniel, 217–220, 239, 283n3
Gardening, generative learning about, 94–98, 209
Gardner, Howard, 147–148, 275n8
Garman, David, 103, 222, 271n2
Geiger, Gadi, 142
Generation effect, 32, 87–88, 94–98, 208–209, 260n7, 269n14; in Andersen Windows and Doors, 250; for blundering gardener, 94–98, 209; for lifelong learners, 220–222; as teaching strategy, 227
Genetic influences, 7, 163, 165; on brain structure, 165, 168, 170; on intellectual abilities, 92, 173, 174, 178
George Mason University, 12, 257n4
Georgia Regents University, 211, 213
Gladwell, Malcolm, 106
Goals: in deliberate practice, 183; on performance and learning, comparison of, 180–181
Goldman-Rakic, Patricia, 167, 279n3
Gratification, delay of, 162–163, 279n1
Gray matter, 169–170
Grigorenko, Elena, 151, 277n12
Growth mindset, 179–183, 281n16; and achievement in science courses, 233
Habit formation, chunking process in, 171–172
Habit strength, 65; compared to momentary strength, 63, 266n12
Handicapping of horse races, mathematics and IQ in, 150, 276–277n11
Harris, Carol, 113, 272n6
Hendry, Bruce, 131, 132–139, 152, 158, 160, 275n2
Hendry, Doris, 132
Highest Duty (Sullenberger), 223
Hindsight bias, 115–116, 273n11
Hippocampus, 172
Hockey training, 52, 65
Honey and Mumford Learning Styles Questionnaire, 144
Horse race handicapping, mathematics and IQ in, 150, 276–277n11
How Children Succeed (Tough), 182
Human Connectome Project, 170
Hunkler, Kiley, 21, 235–236, 283n9
Hunter, Thelma, 223–225, 283n5
Hypnosis, memory distortion in, 114, 272n9
Ice hockey training, 52, 65
Illusion of knowing, 15–17, 21, 81, 102–130, 210, 258n11, 274n23; automatic System 1 and controlled System 2 in, 105–109; in brain training exercises, 178; distortion of memory in, 109–118; in fluency, 17, 82, 116, 202, 210; in massed practice, 82; in rereading, 15–16, 17, 116; teaching strategies in, 229, 230; testing in, 4–5, 16, 17, 116, 210
Imagery as memory cues, 186–188, 193–194, 195–196, 211, 224, 281–282n21
Imagination inflation, distortion of memory in, 113, 272n7
Implicit memory, 56
Indigenous knowledge, compared to academic knowledge, 148–149
Induction abilities, 101
Inner Gate Acupuncture, 240, 250–252
In-service training, 239–240
Instructional styles, 145–146, 275n6. See also Teaching methods
Intellectual abilities, 7, 165, 173–183; control of, 7, 92; environmental factors affecting, 173–176; and fear of failure, 92; genetic influences on, 92, 173, 174, 178; growth mindset on, 179–183; as hardwired, 7, 165, 166, 226
Intelligence, 146–150, 159, 275nn7–8; brain training exercises affecting, 176–179; crystallized, 147, 176; fluid, 146–147, 176–178; measurement of, 147, 148–149; multiple types of, 147–148, 275n8; Sternberg model on, 148–150
Intelligence and How to Get It (Nisbett), 173, 280n12
Intelligence quotient, 147, 165, 173–176; environmental factors affecting, 173–176; Flynn effect in, 173, 280n11; and horse race handicapping ability, 150, 276–277n11
Interference, 114–115; learning benefits of, 86–87, 269n13
Interleaved practice, 4, 49–50, 64–65, 66, 205–207, 269n12; on bird identification, 55, 84–85; conceptual learning in, 84–85; consolidation of memory in, 75; of discrimination skills, 53–55, 65, 84–85, 101; effort in, 47, 50, 81, 207; in Farmers Insurance, 50, 242–244; of football team, 61, 62; habit strength in, 63, 65; of lifelong learners, 219, 220; massed practice compared to, 47, 49, 50, 53–55, 206–207, 263–264n2; mastery in, 83, 84; on mathematics problems, 49–50, 264n4; in medical education, 58; in military jump school training, 71; on motor skills, 65, 80, 206; on painting style of artists, 53–54, 84, 265n7; in pilot training, 12; for spacing retrieval practice, 204; as study strategy, 205–207; as teaching strategy, 228
Interpersonal intelligence, 147
Intrapersonal intelligence, 147
Investment strategies, learning about, 132–139, 152, 158
Isaacman, Erik, 250–252, 284n14
Jacoby, Larry, 111
James, William, 28
Jiffy Lube University, 245–247
Jobs, Steve, 93–94
Johnson, Catherine, 128–129
Judgments of learning, 3, 4–5, 125–130, 159; calibration of, 4–5, 125–130, 210–211; cues in, 126; feedback in, 126–127; illusion of knowing in (See Illusion of knowing); overestimation of competence in, 104–105, 121–123, 124, 273n17; in peer instruction, 125–126; in student-directed learning, 124; testing affecting, 4–5, 16, 17, 125, 202–203
Jump school training in military, 67–78; smoke jump training after, 78
Kahneman, Daniel, 105, 108, 123
Kaiser Steel, 138
Kaizen events, 248–249
Keller, Helen, 112–113, 272n6
Kelley, Colleen, 111
Kennedy, John F., 117
Kennedy, John F., Jr., 108, 271n3
Kenya, indigenous and academic knowledge of children in, 148–149
Kim, Karen, 197–198
Kim, Michela Seong-Hyun, 193–194, 283n25
Kinesthetic intelligence, 147
Kinesthetic learning style, 143, 144
Kinko’s, 140
Knew-it-all-along effect, 116
Knowledge: available and accessible information in, 268n8; in Bloom’s taxonomy of learning, 228; conceptual, 55, 84–85, 265n8; and creativity, 17–18, 30; curse of, 115–116, 119, 273n11, 273n16; illusion of (See Illusion of knowing); indigenous and academic, comparison of, 148–149; and mastery, 18; and overestimation of competence, 104–105, 121–123, 124, 273n17; required for new learning, 5, 100; retrieval cues of, 76–79; System 1 and System 2 in, 105–109, 115
Kompon, Jamie, 52
Kruger, Justin, 121, 122, 273n17
Larsen, Douglas, 56, 59, 60, 64, 66, 155, 239, 265–266n10
Larson, Gary, 5
LaRussa, Tony, 140–141
Learning and Skills Research Centre, 143, 275n5
Learning goals, compared to performance goals, 180–181
Learning paragraphs, 89, 210, 232
Learning styles, 4, 94, 131–132, 139–146, 275nn5–6; dynamic testing compared to, 151; in dyslexia, 139–140, 141–143; and instructional styles, 145–146, 275n6; structure building compared to, 153; VARK approach to, 144
Learning theories, 8–17
Learning tips: for students, 201–217; for lifelong learners, 217–225
Leitner, Sebastian, 64
Leitner box, 64
Leonetti, Oliver, 250, 251, 252
Leppla, Sam, 135–137
Lettvin, Jerome, 142
Lifelong learners, 2, 217–225; elaboration by, 219, 223–225; generation by, 220–222; reflection by, 222–223; retrieval practice of, 217–220
Linguistic intelligence, 147
Logical-mathematical intelligence, 147
Long-term memory, 49, 73, 82, 100; consolidation of, 73–75
Madigan, Stephen, 216, 283n2
Maixner, Kathy, 240–241, 251, 284n11
Maixner Group, 240
Mallow, Johannes, 196
Manhattan Free School, 123
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 142
Massed practice, 3, 9–10, 63; on bird identification, 55; cramming as, 3, 31, 44, 48, 63, 203, 226; fast gains in, 9–10, 47, 125; illusion of mastery in, 82; interleaved practice compared to, 47, 49, 50, 53–55, 206–207, 263–264n2; of motor skills, 52, 80, 81; myth of, 47–48; on painting style of artists, 53–54, 265n7; retrieval practice compared to, 31, 44, 203, 261n11; short-term memory in, 82; spaced practice compared to, 47, 48, 49, 204–205, 263–264n2; varied practice compared to, 47, 53–55
Mastery, 159; components of, 18; deliberate practice for, 183–185; in effort, 83–84; illusion of, 4–5, 15–17 (See also Illusion of knowing); in medical education, 56–60; mental models in, 118–120
Mathematics: of Brazilian children with street businesses, 149–150, 276n10; in horse race handicapping, 150, 276–277n11; interleaved practice on, 49–50, 264n4; massed practice on, 53
Matthews, Michael D., 126, 234–236, 283n8
Mazur, Eric, 119, 125–126, 273n15
McCaw, Craig, 139–140
McDaniel, Mark, 145
McDermott, Kathleen, 227, 236–238, 284n10
McPhee, John, 220–222, 224, 225
Medical education, 56–60, 211–215; complex mastery in, 56–60; in-service training in, 239; practical experience in, 58–59; reflection in, 26–27, 59, 215, 222; retrieval practice in, 23–27, 29, 57–58, 60, 212, 213–215; spaced practice in, 48–49, 212, 214–215, 264n3; testing in, 57, 60, 213, 214, 265–266n10
Memory, 2; in associative learning, 172; consolidation of (See Consolidation of memory); distortions of (See Distortions of memory); effort of learning affecting, 9, 49; in elaboration, 207–208; encoding of information in, 72–73, 100, 267n3; explicit, 56; false, 267n3; false consensus effect on, 117, 273n13; familiarity affecting, 116; flashbulb, 117–118, 273n14; in fluency, 116; and fluid intelligence, 176–178; and forgetting curves, 28, 259n2; generation effect in, 32, 87–88, 269n14; hindsight bias affecting, 115–116, 273n11; hypnosis affecting, 114, 272n9; imagination inflation affecting, 113, 272n7; implicit, 56; interference affecting, 114–115; long-term, 49, 73–75, 82, 100; mental models in, 118–120; with mnemonic devices, 163–164, 185–198 (See also Mnemonic devices); momentary and habit strength of, 63, 266n12; narratives affecting, 109–112; in retrieval practice, 3–4, 19–20, 75–76; short-term, 49, 72–73, 75, 82, 90, 100; social influences on, 116–117, 273n12; in spaced practice, 63, 82, 205; suggestion affecting, 113–114; testing strengthening, 19–20, 29, 30–32, 39, 259n5, 261n11; working (See Working memory)
Memory athletes, 164, 166, 193, 194–197, 282–283n24
Memory cues, 185–198. See also Mnemonic devices
Memory palaces, 185–186, 191–194, 211
Memory span, 196
Memory traces, 72; consolidation of, 73–75
Mental models, 6–7, 83, 101, 118–120, 257n1; structure building in, 153
Mentors, 140
Metacognition, 16, 102, 121, 169, 270–271n1
Method of loci, 185–186
Michelangelo, 184
Military jump school training, 67–78; smoke jump training after, 78
Mischel, Walter, 162, 279n1
Mnemonic devices, 163–164, 185–198, 211; in Farmers Insurance training, 243, 244; historical, 189, 282n23; memory palaces as, 185–186, 191–194, 211; mental imagery as, 186–188, 193–194, 195–196, 211, 224, 281–282n21; of psychology students, 163, 186, 191–194, 211; rhyme schemes as, 188–189; songs as, 189; visual imagery as, 187–188, 193–194, 195–196, 211, 282n22
Momentary strength, compared to habit strength, 63, 266n12
Moonwalking with Einstein (Foer), 195
Morris, Errol, 109, 126
Motor skills, 40; beanbag study of, 46, 51, 86, 263n1; feedback on, 40, 261n12; in habit formation, 171–172; interleaved practice of, 65, 80, 206; massed practice of, 52, 80, 81; varied practice of, 46, 51–52, 264n5
Mozart, 184
Multiple-choice tests, 41, 261n12, 262n14
Multiple intelligences, 147–148, 275n8
Musical intelligence, 147
Myelin, 169, 170–171, 178, 280n8
Narratives, 109–113, 140
National Institutes of Health Human Connectome Project, 170
Naturalistic intelligence, 148
Nervous system: axons and dendrites in, 166, 169–171, 178; brain in (See Brain); in habit formation, 171–172; myelination of, 169, 170–171, 178, 280n8; neurogenesis in, 172; synapses in, 166–167, 170
Neurogenesis, 172
Neurons, 166; generation of, 172; synapses of, 10, 166–167
Neuroplasticity, 66, 142, 164–173, 184, 279n3
Neuroscience, 8; plasticity of brain in, 164, 166–173
New Yorker, 220
New York Times, 29, 109, 169
Nisbett, Richard, 173, 178, 280n12
Nutrition, and intelligence quotient, 174–175
Open-book testing, 40, 261–262n13
Orfalea, Paul, 140
Osmosis social-learning platform, 240
Painting style of artists, interleaved and massed practice in identification of, 53–54, 84, 265n7
Paivio, Allan, 281–282n21
Pashler, Harold, 145, 146
Paterson, James, 163–164, 166, 193–197, 282–283n24
Peer instruction, 125–126; in testing groups, 230–231
Peer review, 127
Penny memory test, 12–13, 258n7
Performance: attributions of, 180–182; in deliberate practice, 183–185; expert (See Expert performance); goals on, compared to learning goals, 180–181; in growth mindset, 179–183; self-discipline, grit, and persistence required for, 182, 183, 199
Pilot training, 1–2, 10–12, 19, 169; and China Airlines incident, 106–109, 271n3; reflection in, 223; testing as retrieval practice in, 20
Plant classification, learning of, 96–98
Plasticity of brain, 66, 142, 164–173, 279n3; in deliberate practice, 184
Police training: reflection in, 222; simulations on firearm use in, 128–130
Polk, James, 165, 167
Practical intelligence, 148, 150
Practice like you play. See Simulation training
Praise, and response to challenges, 181–182
Priming the mind for learning, 86. See also Generation effect
Prior knowledge as foundation for new learning, 5, 100
Problem solving, 4, 278n14; effort in, 86, 181–182; errors in, 91–92, 101; generation effect in, 87–88, 94, 208–209; interleaved practice in, 49–50, 264n4; mental models in, 120; praise affecting, 181–182; by rule learners and example learners, 156–157; transfer of learning in, 157, 278n14
Proust, Marcel, 79
Psychology students, 211; illusion of mastery of, 16; mnemonic devices used by, 163, 186, 191–194, 211; spaced retrieval practice of, 216–217; writing-to-learn strategy used by, 89–90
Qstream training platform, 240
Quizzing. See Testing
Reading: ability in, 141; in dyslexia, 139–140, 141–143; generation effect in, 209; and intelligence quotient changes, 175–176; interference as learning aid in, 86–87, 269n13; and rereading (See Rereading); in VARK approach to learning styles, 144
Reagan, Ronald, 24
Recitation, compared to rereading, 30
Reconsolidation of memory, 20, 74, 82–83, 101, 268–269n11
Reflection, 26–27, 66, 88–90, 209–210; in football training, 62, 222; of lifelong learners, 222–223; in medical education, 26–27, 59, 215, 222; in pilot training, 223; in police training, 222; structure building in, 155; with write-to-learn and learning paragraphs, 89–90, 210, 232, 269n15
Reflexive actions: automatic System 1 in, 105–106, 107, 108, 115; neural circuits in, 171; repetitive practice required for, 25, 27
Rehearsal practice: of football team, 61–62; as spaced practice, 76
Reinhard, Simon, 282–283n24
Reloading learning, 82, 268n10
Remembrance of Things Past (Proust), 79
Renewal by Andersen, 247–250
Repetition: in football practice, 61; illusion of mastery in, 15–16; lack of learning in, 12–16, 258n7; in massed practice, 3, 9–10; of reading (See Rereading); of retrieval practice, 28–29, 31–32, 43; study advice on, 12, 204–205; of testing, 31–32, 44, 125, 203–204, 263n17
Rereading, 3, 10, 14–16, 258nn9–10; fluency in, 17, 116, 202; illusion of knowing in, 15–16, 17, 116; of medical student, 214; recitation compared to, 30; retrieval practice and testing compared to, 41, 42, 44, 202–203; spaced practice in, 14, 15
Retrieval cues, 75, 76–79, 100, 267n5; and accessible information, 268n8; and distortions of memory, 112
Retrieval practice, 3–4, 11–12, 23–45, 75–76, 100; in Columbia Public School District, 34, 36, 238; in commercial training, 240; consolidation of memory in, 74; effort in, 41, 43, 79, 203, 262n14; of football team, 62; in free recall exercise, 231; with learning paragraphs, 89, 232; of lifelong learners, 217–220; long-term benefits of, 35, 39, 44; massed practice compared to, 31, 44, 203, 261n11; mastery in, 83; in medical education, 23–27, 29, 57–58, 60, 212, 213–215; neurogenesis in, 172; of psychology student, 216–217; reflection in (See Reflection); repetition of, 28–29, 31–32, 43; rereading compared to, 41, 42, 44, 202–203; spaced out, 32, 43, 203–205; in student-directed learning, 124; as study technique, 41, 201–205, 262n15; as teaching strategy, 227, 229–230, 231, 235; testing as, 19–20, 28–44, 201–203. See also Testing
Retrieval strength, 266n12
Rhyme schemes as memory cues, 188–189
Riverside Military Academy, 236
Rohrer, Doug, 145
Role-playing in business coaching, 241, 252
Rule learning, 133; compared to example learning, 155–157, 278–279n15; and structure building, 157
Rumsfeld, Donald, 17
Schema induction, 278n14
Science courses: achievement gap in, 232–234, 283n7; in Columbia Public School District, 238–239
Self-directed learning, 123–124, 274n18; flashcards in, 44, 124, 274n19
Sensory skill retraining, 168–169
September 11th terrorist attacks, flashbulb memories of, 118, 273n14
Shooting an azimuth, testing as, 21, 235–236
Short-answer tests, 41, 262n14
Short-term memory, 49, 72–73, 75, 82, 100; encoding of information in, 100; forgetting of, 72–73, 100; in massed practice, 82; retrieval from, 90, 100
Simulation training: in football practice, 61–62; in Jiffy Lube University, 246; in military jump school training, 61–72; in medical school, 57–58; of pilots, 11–12, 20; of police, 128–130; practice like you play, 57–58, 85–86, 130; role-play as simulation, 241, 243–244, 252
Skinner, B. F., 90, 270n16
Sleep, consolidation of memory in, 63, 73, 267n4
Smoke jump training, 78
Sobel, Andrew, 37–39, 64, 125, 227, 261n10
Social contagion of memory, 117, 273n12
Social influences on memory, 116–117
Socioeconomic status, and intelligence quotient, 174, 175
Songs, as mnemonic devices, 189
Spaced practice, 4, 48–49, 66, 203–205; in baseball training, 80; in commercial training, 240; consolidation of memory in, 63, 75, 82; effort in, 4, 47, 49, 81, 82, 205; flashcards in, 64, 204; of football team, 61–62; forgetting in, 63, 82; habit strength in, 63; interleaving in, 64; of lifelong learners, 219, 220; massed practice compared to, 47, 48, 49, 204–205, 263–264n2; in medical education, 48–49, 212, 214–215, 264n3; in military jump school training, 71; neurogenesis in, 172; in pilot training, 12; of medical student, 213–215; of psychology student, 217; rehearsal in, 76; reloading in, 82, 268n10; in rereading, 14, 15; strength of learning in, 48; as study strategy, 203–205; as teaching strategy, 228; in testing, 32, 40, 43; time between sessions in, 63
Spatial disorientation of pilots, 108, 271n3
Spatial intelligence, 147
Spivey, Michelle, 36
Sports training: for baseball, 6–7, 79–81, 85, 86, 206, 268n9; for football, 60–62, 120, 124, 198, 222; for ice hockey, 52, 65; interleaved practice in, 61, 62, 65, 80, 206; massed practice in, 52, 80, 81; practice like you play in, 85–86; retrieval practice in, 62
Standardized testing, 18, 19, 30, 151
Sternberg, Robert, 18, 148–151, 276n9
Structure building, 133, 153–155, 160–161, 277n13; in reflection, 155; and rule learning, 157
Students, 201–217; in medical education, 211–215 (See also Medical education); in peer instruction, 125–126, 230–231; in psychology course, 16, 89–90, 163, 186, 190–194, 216–217; reflection of, 209–210; retrieval practice of, 201–205; self-directed learning of, 123–124, 274n18; spaced practice of, 203–205; study techniques of (See Study techniques); tips for teachers of, 225–239
Study techniques, 16, 201–217; calibration of judgment in, 210–211; elaboration in, 207–208, 214, 215, 227, 231; generation in, 208–209; interleaved practice in, 205–207; massed practice or cramming in, 3, 9–10, 31, 44, 48, 63, 203, 226; of medical students, 211–215 (See also Medical education); mnemonic devices in, 186, 190–194, 196–197, 211; of psychology students, 16, 89–90, 163, 186, 190–194, 211, 216–217; reflection in, 209–210; rereading in, 42, 202; retrieval practice and testing in, 41, 201–205, 262n15; spaced practice in, 203–205; in student-directed learning, 124; teacher explanations on, 226
Study tips: for students, 201–217; for lifelong learners, 217–225
Suggestion, distortion of memory in, 113–114
Sullenberger, Chesley, 223
Summary sheets, 208, 231
Surgical training: reflection in, 26–27; retrieval practice in, 23–27, 29; spaced practice in, 48–49, 264n3
Swonk, Diane, 139
Synapses: formation of, 166–167; pruning of, 167; structures in twins, 170
Synthesis of knowledge, in Bloom’s taxonomy of learning, 229
Teaching methods, 225–239; for achievement in science courses, 232–234, 283n7; in Columbia Public School District (Illinois), 33–37, 238–239; fire hose instruction in, 10, 12; learning paragraphs in, 89, 210, 232; and learning styles, 145–146, 275n6; of Matthews, 234–236; of McDermott, 227, 236–238; in medicine, 57–60; peer instruction in, 125–126, 230–231; of Sobel, 37–39, 64, 125, 227; summary sheets in, 208, 231; Thayer method, 234, 236; transparency in, 228, 229–230, 237; of Wenderoth, 89, 208, 210, 228–234, 236
Teams, complementary areas of expertise in, 127–128
Testing, 4–5, 19–20; anxiety in, 91–92; benefits of, 42–43, 44, 125, 202–203, 263n17; in Columbia Public School District, 20, 33–37, 238, 258n13, 260n8; in commercial training, 240; cramming for, 3, 31, 44, 48, 63, 203, 226; delayed, 43; dynamic, 151–152, 159, 277n12; errors in, 39–40, 44, 91; as false measure of ability, 19; familiarity affecting, 64; fear of failure in, 91–92; feedback on answers in, 39–40, 44; frequency of, 44, 125, 203–204, 263n17; in illusion of mastery, 4–5, 16, 17, 116, 210; in intelligence measurement, 147, 148–149; in Jiffy Lube University, 245, 246; in jump school training, 69–70, 72; in learning style research, 145; as learning tool, 19–20, 31, 125, 201–205, 258–259nn13–14; massed practice or cramming for, 3, 31, 48, 63; in medical education, 57, 60, 213, 214, 265–266n10; memory cues in preparation for, 186, 190–194, 196–197, 211; multiple-choice tests in, 41, 261n12, 262n14; open-book, 40, 261–262n13; overestimation of competence in, 121–122; and peer instruction in groups, 230–231; in psychology course, 16, 90, 186, 190–194, 216, 217; recall of information after, 19–20, 29, 30–32, 259n5; repetition of, 31–32, 44, 125, 203–204, 263n17; rereading compared to, 41, 42, 44, 202–203; rereading in preparation for, 14, 15; restudying missed material in, 42, 211; as retrieval practice, 19–20, 28–44, 201–203; as shooting an azimuth, 21, 235–236; short-answer tests in, 41, 262n14; in spaced practice, 203–204, 205; standardized, 18, 19, 30, 151; student attitudes toward, 42; in student-directed learning, 123–124; taxonomy of learning levels in, 232; as teaching strategy, 226–227, 232, 234–235, 236–238; in Thayer method, 234, 236. See also Retrieval practice
Testing effect, 19–20, 28–44, 212, 240
Testing groups, 230–231
Thayer, Sylvanus, 234
Thayer method, 234, 236
Thinking, Fast and Slow (Kahneman), 105
Thomson, Donald M., 115, 272n10
Time between practice sessions, 4, 48–49; 203–204, 215. See also Spaced practice
Tips for lifelong learners, 217–225; for students, 201–217; for teachers, 225–239; for trainers, 239–252
Tough, Paul, 182–183
Toyota Motor Company, 249
Training methods, 239–252; of Renewal by Andersen, 247–250; of Farmers Insurance, 50, 241–244; in-service training in, 239–240; of Jiffy Lube, 245–247; of Inner Gate Acupuncture, 250–252; of Maixner Group, 240–241; for pilots (See Pilot training); for police, 128–130, 222; in sports (See Sports training)
Transfer of learning, 85–86, 157, 278n14
Transparency in teaching strategies, 228, 229–230, 237
Tulving, Endel, 13–14, 258n8, 259n6, 267n5
Twain, Mark, 187–188, 194, 211, 282n22
Twin studies on neural circuitry, 170
Undesirable difficulties, 92, 98–99
United States Military Academy at West Point, 234–236
University of California, Los Angeles, 170
University of Georgia, 60, 222
University of New Mexico, 14
University of Southern California, 216
University of Washington, 228
Varied practice, 4, 51–53, 65–66; anagram study of, 52–53, 264–265n6; beanbag study of, 46, 51; of bird identification, 55; of cognitive skills, 52–53; of discrimination skills, 53–55, 101; effort in, 47, 81; of football team, 61, 62; habit strength in, 63, 65; of lifelong learners, 219; massed practice compared to, 47, 53–55; mastery in, 84; in medical education, 58; of motor skills, 46, 51–52, 264n5; in pilot training, 12; as teaching strategy, 228; transfer of learning in, 85–86
VARK approach to learning styles, 144
Virgin Atlantic Airways, 139
Virgin Records, 139
Visual images as memory cues, 186–188, 193–194, 195–196, 211, 224, 281–282n21
Visual learning style, 144, 145
Washington University, 14, 209, 236; Medical School of, 56
Weatherford, Jack, 189
Wehrenberg, Jon, 36
Wenderoth, Mary Pat, 126, 208, 228–234, 236, 283n6; class structure used by, 232–233, 236; learning paragraphs used by, 89, 210, 232; summary sheets used by, 208, 231
West Point Military Academy, 234–236
White matter, 169–170
Working memory: in brain training exercises, 176, 177; capacity of, 91, 176, 196; encoding of information in, 100; and fluid intelligence, 176–178; number of digits available in, 196; test anxiety affecting, 91, 92
Writer’s block, 220–221
Write-to-learn, 89–90, 269n15; and learning paragraphs, 89, 210, 232
Wynveen, Richard, 248–250, 284n13
Young, Michael, 211–215, 228, 283n1
Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, 24